Indus Valley Civilization

Indus Valley Civilization

Extent of the civilization

Extent of the IVC

• Centered along the Indus
• Extended into Ghaggar-Hakra and Ganga-Yamuna river valleys
• Encompassed almost entire Pakistan, western India, southeastern Afghanistan and eastern Iran
• Isolated colonies as far away as Turkmenistan
• Coastal sites: Sutkagan Dor (Baluchistan), Lothal (Gujarat)
• Easternmost site: Alamgirpur (near Delhi)
• Island site: Dholavira
• Over 500 sites found in the Ghaggar-Hakra river bed, around 100 along the Indus
• First discovery (accidental): village called Brahminabad between Karachi and Lahore (1856)
• First excavated site: Harappa, by Sir J.H. Marshall (1921-22)
• Latest discovery: Sep 2009, rock engravings indicating Indus Valley culture found in Edakkal caves in Wayanad district of Kerala

Periodisation

Date Range	Phase	Major sites	Important attributes
7000 – 3300 BC	Mehrgarh	Mehrgarh	Cultivation of wheat and barley Proto-dentistry
3300 – 2600 BC	Early Harappan	Balakot Amri Hakra Kot Diji	Arts and crafts
2600 – 1900 BC	Mature Harappan	Harappa Mohenjo-Daro Kalibangan Dholavira Lothal Rupar	Cultivation of peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton Domestication of animals Large urban centres with urban planning Dockyards, granaries, warehouses System of weights and measures in the ratio 4:2:1 Stringed musical instruments Bullock carts Maritime trade with Mesopotamia Burial of the dead
1900-1300 BC	Late Harappan	Harappa	Cremation of the dead Rice becomes main crop Expansion to the east Breakdown of trade Possibly identified with Vedic period

Vedic Period

Sapta Sindhu

River	Vedic Name
Indus	Sindhu
Ghaggar-Hakra	Saraswati
Sutlej	Sutudri
Beas	Vipasha
Jhelum	Vitasta
Ravi	Parusni
Chenab	Asikini

Extent and Age

• Began 2nd millenium BCE, ended around 600 BCE
• Centered around northern and northwestern parts of Indian subcontinent
• Late vedic period marked by rise of Mahajanapadas
• Succeeded by Mauryan Empire

Political Structure

• Polity (rashtra) divided into jana, vis, grama
• Governed by a king, elected from a restricted group of royals. King aided by priest and army chief
• King governed with consent of people
• Two types of assemblies: gana, sabha
  

Society and Economy

• Rigid concept of varna and rules of marriage
• Brahmins and Kshatriyas held higher status than Vaishyas and Shudras
• Early vedic period: Prominence of agriculture, economy based on barter system
• Late vedic period: Agriculture becomes dominant economic activity, long distance trade becomes important

Four Vedas

• Together comprise the Samhitas
• Part of sruti literature (i.e. heard)
• Each Veda contains metrical Mantra and prose Brahmana parts
• Rig Veda contains verses of praise in metre for loud recitation, Yajur Veda prose for recitation at sacrifices, Sama Veda in metre for singing at Soma ceremonies, Atharva Veda
• spells and incantations set in metre and prose

Brahmanas

• Give details and directions for using Mantras at ceremonies, explains legends connected with Mantras and rituals
• Contained as part of the Vedas
• Total of 19 Brahmanas: 2 associated with Rig Veda, 6 with Yajur Veda, 10 with Sama Veda, 1 with Atharva Veda
• Brahmanas led to development of later Hindu philosophy, science, astronomy, linguistics

Aranyakas

• Part of sruti literature
• Considered “wilderness books” givng details of life in the forest
• Similar to Brahmanas: detail proper performance of rituals, especially dangerous ones to be performed in the forest
• Total of 8 Aranyakas
• Surya Namaskara detailed in Taittiriya Aranyaka

Upanishads

• Composed towards the end of the Vedic period
• Constitute core teachings of Vedanta
• Greatly influence Hindu philosophy. Describe Brahman and Atman
• Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is the oldest
• Dara Shikoh (son of Shah Jahan) translated 50 Upanishads into Persian
• Upanishads collectively considered one of the 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written

THE MAHAJANAPADAS

THE MAHAJANAPADAS

Mahajanapada	Capital	Highlights
Kasi	Varanasi	Incorporated into Kosala by King Kansa
Kosala	Sravasti	Important cities Ayodhya, Saketa, Benares Annexed Shakya clan, whose King was Buddha’s father Buddha was born at Kapilavastu
Anga	Champa	Annexed by Bimbisara of Magadha
Magadha	Rajagriha, Pataliputra	First Buddhist Council at Pataliputra Origin of Buddhism and Jainism Origin or Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire
Vajji	Mithila	Confedration Lichchavis, Videhans, Vajjis Mahavira’s mother was a Lichchavi princess Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali
Malla	Kusinara, Pava	Followed republican form of government Buddha fell ill at Pava, died at Kusinara
Chedi	Sukti/Suktimati
Vatsa	Kausambi	Important trade centre
Kuru	Indraprastha
Panchala	Chhatravati (Ramnagar), Kampilya
Machcha	Viratanagara (Bairat)
Surasena	Mathura	King Avantiputra was among the first disciples of the Buddha
Assaka	Potana/Potali	Only Mahajanapada south of the Vindhyas Located on the banks of the Godavari Located on Dakshinapatha, road b/w Rajagriha and Paithan (central Maharashtra)
Avanti	Ujjaini	Important centre of Buddhism Located on Dakshinapatha
Gandhara	Taxila	Famous for wool (mentioned in Rig Veda) Taxila University renowned centre of learning Panini and Kautilya both from Taxila Univ. Located on the Uttarapatha Important trade centre b/w Iran and Central Asia
Kambhoja	Rajapura (Rajori)	Had Iranian and Indian affinities Well known for republican government Conquered and annexed by Persian empire

MAGADHA

• Origin of Buddhism and Jainism
• Origin of Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire
• Expansion started by Bimbisara, continued by son Ajatasatru
• Ajatasatru developed 2 new weapons to defeat Licchavis in 15 year war: catapult, covered chariot with swinging mace (like modern tank)
• Mahapadma Nanda became ruler in 424 BCE. He is considered India’s first Empire builder
• Alexander the Great invaded India during the reign of Dhana Nanda in 326 BCE
• Maurya Empire established by Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BCE

SANGAM AGE

Overview

• Supposed to have been three Sangams, the first two in pre-history
  
• The last Sangam (300 BCE – 300 CE) is usually referred to as the Sangam Age
  
• Consisted of middle Chera, Chola, Pandiya kingdoms
  
• Capital cities
  
  • Cheras: Vanchi
    
  • Cholas: Urayur, Kaveripattinam/Puhar
    
  • Pandiyas: Madurai
    

Sangam Literature

• Sangam literature divided into two groups of 18 books each
  
• Literature dealt with two types of issues
  
  • Agam: dealing with personal or human aspects such as love, relationships etc
    
  • Puram: dealing with other aspects of society such as customs, kingdom, war etc
    
• Oldest Tamil literature currently available is the book on Tamil grammar called Tolkappiyam
• There are five epics of the Sangam period
  
  • Silappathikaram: written by Ilango Adigal in the 1^st century CE
    
  • Manimekalai: sequel to Silappathikaram, written by Seethalai Sathanar
    
  • Civaka Cintamani – written by Tirukkatevar
    
  • Valayaapathi – work lost, details unknown
    
  • Kundalakesi – largely lost, details unknown
    

Classification of geographical regions

Different regions of the ancient Tamil country were classified based on their landscape. Each poem in the literature was associated with a particular landscape

Tamil name	Landscape
Kurinchi	Mountains
Mullai	Forest
Marutham	Plains
Neithal	Coast
Paalai	Desert

Other Highlights

• The Grand Anicut is one of the world’s oldest dams still in active use. It was built across the Kaveri by Karikala Chola in the 2^nd century BCE
  
• There was extensive trade with Rome. Main exports were pearls, gold, ivory, pepper and textiles. Main imports were glass, wine and topaz.
  
• Large amounts of Roman currency have been found in Tamil Nadu, as an indicator of foreign trade
  
• The Tirukkural is the book translated into the most number of languages in the world. It is a book of couplets on ethics written by Tiruvalluvar sometime between the 3^rd century BCE and 5^th century CE

BUDDHISM IN INDIA

BUDDHISM IN INDIA

About the Buddha

• Born in Lumbini (Kapilavastu) in 563 BC
• Belonged to a Shakya Kshatriya clan
• Father: Suddhodhana, Mother: Mahamaya (a princess from Kosala). He was brought up by his aunt Goutami
• Married to Yasodhara, had a son Rahul
• Left home when 29 years old
• Performed Mahabiniskaramana to become a wandering ascetic
• He joined five ascetics Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi and became their leader
• Achieved enlightenment at 35 at Uruvela (bodh Gaya) on the banks of Niranjana (528 BCE)
• His first sermon is called Dharmachakra-pravartana
• Died (Parinirvana) at Kusinagar in 483 BC at age 80

THE COUNCILS OF BUDDHISM

• First Buddhist Council (400 BCE)
  • Held soon after the death of the Buddha
  • Presided by monk Mahakasyapa
  • Held by Magadha king Ajatasatru in Rajagriha
  • Objective was to preserve the Buddha’s sayings (suttas) and monastic rules (Vinaya)
• Second Buddhist Council (4^th century BCE)
  • Held about 100 years after the Buddha’s demise
  • Held at Vaisali under the presidentship of Sabakami, convened by King Kalasoka
  • Objective was to settle a debate on certain practices of Buddhist monks, esp. in western India
• Third Buddhist Council (250 BCE)
  • Held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka
  • Chief monk was Mogaliputta Tissa
  • Sent Buddhist missionaries to other countries
  • Objective was to purify the Buddhist movement from opportunistic factions
  • Origin of Theravada school
• Fourth Buddhist Councils (1^st century BCE or CE)
  • Possibly held under Theravada school in Tambapanni (Sri Lanka) in the 1^st century BCE
  • Committed the Pali Canon to writing
  • Another possibly held under Saravastivada tradition, convened by Kanishka around 100 CE in Kashmir under the leadership of monk Vasumitra
  • Kanishka’s council translated Abhidharna texts from Prakrit to Sanskrit

THE SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM

1. Theravada Buddhism
   1. Oldest surviving school of Buddhism
   2. Considered closest to early Buddhism
   3. Emerged from the Third Buddhist Council held under Asoka at Pataliputra (c. 250 BCE)
   4. Introduced to Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of Asoka, during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa
   5. Based on the Pali Canon
   6. Practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand
2. Mahayana Buddhism
   1. Flourished from the 5^th century CE onwards
   2. Patronized by the Gupta dynasty
   3. Nalanda University was a centre of Mahayana learning
   4. Practiced today in Japan, China, Korea, Singapore and Vietnam
3. Vajrayana Buddhism
   1. Involves tantric practices
   2. Became prominent after the fall of the Gupta dynasty
   3. Tibetan Buddhism belongs to this tradition

THE TEXTS OF BUDDHISM

1. Pali Tipitaka (Pali Canon)
   1. Refers to three main books
      1. Vinaya Pitaka: contains disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks
      2. Sutta Pitaka: contains disclosures ascribed to the Buddha
      3. Abhidhamma Pitaka: systematic explanations of the Buddha’s teachings
   2. The Pali Tipitaka is the only one to survive in its original language
   3. Originated from the First Buddhist Council (c 400 BCE) under the leadership of monk Mahakasyapa
   4. Used primarily by the Theravada tradition
2. Mahayana Sutras
   1. Composed from the 1^st century CE onwards
   2. Claim to articulate the Buddha’s more advanced doctrines for followers of the bodhisattva path
   3. Used by the Mahayana tradition

TIMELINE OF BUDDHISM

IMPORTANT BUDDHIST SITES IN INDIA

Buddhism’s four holiest sites are Lumbini(Buddha’s birth), Bodh Gaya (enlightenment), Sarnath (first sermon) and Kusinagara (death)

1. Lumbini (Nepal)
   1. Site of the Buddha’s birth
   2. In the present-day region of Terai (southern Nepal)
   3. Houses the Mayadevi Temple and Pusakarini or Holy Pond (where the Buddha had his first bath)
   4. Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1997)
2. Bodh Gaya (Bihar)
   1. Site of the Buddha’s enlightenment
   2. Home of the Mahabodhi Temple (constructed 6^th century CE by the Guptas)
   3. Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2002)
3. Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh)
   1. Site of the Buddha’s first sermon
   2. Place where the first Sangha came into existence
   3. Home of Asoka’s famous Sarnath Pillar
   4. Contains the Dhamek Stupa, Chaukhandi Stupa, Dharmarajika Stupa, Mulagandhakuti Vihara
   5. Presently on the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List
4. Kusinagara (Uttar Pradesh)
   1. Site of the Buddha’s death
   2. Contains the Mahipariniravana Stupa
   3. Houses the Makutabandhana, cremation site of the Buddha
   4. Current plans: Maitreya Project to build a 500 ft statue of the Buddha
5. Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh)
   1. Houses several Buddhist monuments from 3^rd century BCE to 12^th century CE
   2. The Great Stupa at Sanchi was commissioned by Asoka in the 3^rd century BCE
   3. Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1989)

IMPORTANT BUDDHIST MONASTERIES IN INDIA

Monastery	Location	Notes
Dhankar Gompa	Himachal Pradesh	In the Spiti Valley
Gandhola Monastery	Himachal Pradesh	Chenab river
Kardang Monastery	Himachal Pradesh
Key Monastery	Himachal Pradesh	Largest monastery in Spiti Valley
Lhalung Monastery	Himachal Pradesh	One of the earliest in Spiti Valley
Tabo Monastery	Himachal Pradesh	Listed by the ASI as a national historic treasure Oldest monastery in India
Tangyud Monastery	Himachal Pradesh
Dharmasala	Himachal Pradesh	Seat of the Tibetan Government in Exile
Namdroling Monastery	Karnataka (near Mysore)	Largest centre of Nyingmapa sect Established by Penor Rinpoche in 1963
Rumtek Monastery	Sikkim	Seat of the Tibetan Karmapa in exile
Tawang Monastery	Arunachal Pradesh	Largest monastery in India

JAINISM IN INDIA

JAINISM IN INDIA

About Jainism

• Claims lineage of 24 Tirthankaras
• Mahavira was the last Trithankara (6th century BCE)
• Parshavantha is claimed to be the 23rd Trithankara (9th century BCE)
• Jainism predates Buddhism

IMPORTANT PEOPLE OF JAINISM

1. Parshvanatha
   • He was the 23rd Tirthankara
   • Lives in Varanasi around 800 BCE
   • Son of king Ashvasena and queen Vama of Varanasi
   • Attained nirvana atop mountain Sammet Shikar, now known as Parasnath Hills
2. Vardhamana Mahavira
   • He was the 24th and last Tirthankara
   • Born 599 BCE in Kshatriyakunda in Bihar
   • Father was king Siddharta and mother Queen Tishala
   • At age 30 gave up wordly possessions and wandered as an ascetic for 12 years
   • Attained nirvana 527 BCE at Pawapuri near Rajgir at age 72
3. Acharya Bhadrabahu
   • Influential Jain monk who lived 433 BCE – 357 BCE
   • He was the spiritual teacher of Changradgupta Maurya
   • Led Chandragupta Maurya and other followers to Karnataka to avoid famine in the north
   • The Digambara sect of Jainism follows his teachings
   • Composed important Jaina texts like Upsargahara Stotra and Kalpasutra

THE COUNCILS OF JAINISM

1. First Council
   • Held at Pataliputra
   • supervised by Stulabhadra (disciple of Bhadrabahu)
   • Established the Jain canon Siddhanta, from which the teachings of Svetambaras derived
2. Second Council
   • Held at Vallabhi (Gujarat)
   • Supervised by Devardhi Kshama-sramana
   • Objective was to collect all Jain sacred texts and compile them in books

THE SECTS OF JAINISM

1. Digambara
   • Implies sky-clad
   • Digambara monks do not wear clothes
   • Digambara ascetics have only two possessions: a peacock feather broom and a water gourd
   • Believe women cannot attain moksha
2. Svetambara
   • Implies white-clad
   • Svetambara monks wear white clothes
   • Do not believe that women cannot attain moksha

IMPORTANT JAIN SITES IN INDIA

1. Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves
   • Located near Bhubaneshwar
   • Commissioned as quarters for Jain monks by Kharavela in the 2nd century BCE
   • Caves are situated on two hills Udayagiri and Khandagiri that face each other
   • Udayagiri caves house the famous Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela
2. Parasnath Hills
   • One of the most sacred places of Jainism
   • Located near Giridih in Jharkhand
   • 20 out of 24 Tirthankaras attained nirvana here, including Parshvanatha
3. Shravanabelagola
   • Houses the 57 foot statue of Gomateshwara Bahubali
   • Built around 980 CE by Chamundaraya a general of Ganga king Gangaraya
   • The Mahamastakabhisheka is performed every 12 years for the statue
   • The last ceremony was held in 2006, next one will be held in 2018
   • It is one of the largest monolith statues in the world (carved out of a single rock)

IMPORTANT JAIN TEMPLES IN INDIA

Temple	Location	Notes
Dilwara	Rajasthan	Built by Chalukyas 11-13th centuries Famous for use of marble
Ranakpur	Rajashtan	Built in the 14-15th centuries
Bawangaja	Madhya Pradesh	84 foot statue of first Tirthankara Rishabha (Adinatha) Erected 12th century CE
Sonagiri	Madhya Pradesh