ANCIENT INDIA: SOURCES, LITERATURE AND SCIENCE
INFORMATION SOURCES FOR ANCIENT INDIA
Indian literary sources
Source | Author | Language | Date | Notes |
Veda Samhitas | Various | Sanskrit | 1st m.
BCE
| Gives account of life of people in addition to philosophy, religion etc |
Arthashastra | Chanakya | Sanskrit | 4th c. BCE | Covers Mauryan period under Chandragupta Maurya
Treatise on statecraft, economy and military strategy
|
Sangam literature | Various | Tamil | c. 600 BCE – 300 CE | Primarily Dealt with everyday themes |
Foreign literary sources
Source | Author | Language | Date | Notes |
Indika | Megasthenes | Greek | 4th c. BCE | Ambassador of Seleucus I to court of Chandragupta Maurya
Used by later writers Strabo and Arrian
Describes geography, politics, various kingdoms, caste system
|
Indica | Arrian | Greek | 1st c. CE | Considered one of most important sources about India
Covers travel of Alexander’s officer Nearchus from India to Babylon
Covers geography, esp. Indus and Ganges
Describes social structure
Describes seven castes, physical appearance, absence of slavery
Used Indika (Megasthenes) as source
|
Geographica | Strabo | Greek | 1st c. CE | Descriptive history of people and places all over the world
Consists of 17 volumes of material
|
Fa-Hien | Chinese | Around 400 CE | Travelled to India/Ceylon to obtain Buddhist scriptures |
Epigraphical sources
Note that more than 55% of epigraphical inscriptions in India are in Tamil
Inscription | Location | Attributed to
(date)
| Notes |
Indus valley inscriptions | IVC | c. 2600 – 1900 BCE | Indus script remains undeciphered |
Edicts of Asoka | All over India | Asoka
3rd c. BCE
| In Praktrit, Sanskrit, Greek |
Heliodorus pillar | Besnagar
(Madhya Pradesh)
| c. 110 BCE | In Sanskrit (Brahmi)
Dedicated by Heliodorus to god Vasudeva
Heliodorus was the Ambassador of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to court of Sunga king Bhagabhadra
Describes relationship b/w Sungas and Indo-Greeks
|
Hathigumpha incription | Udayagiri
(Orissa)
| Kharavela
(Kalinga)
(150 BCE)
| In Prakrit (Brahmi script)
Main source of info about Kharavela
Mentions conflict with Demetrius
Mentions conflict with Uttarapatha
|
Rabatak inscription | Rabatak
(Afghanistan)
| Kanishka
127-151 CE
| In Bactrian (Greek script)
Describes Kushan dynasty
|
Halmidi inscription | Halmidi
(Karnataka)
| c. 450 CE | Oldest inscription in Kannada (Brahmi script) |
LITERATURE IN ANCIENT INDIA
Important ancient Sanskrit literature
Work | Category | Author
(date)
| Notes |
Mahabharata | Epic | Vyasa | |
Ramayana | Epic | Valmiki | |
Ashtadhyayi | Treatise on grammar | Panini
(5th -4th c. BCE)
| One of the earliest known grammars of Sanskrit |
Nirukta | Treatise on grammar | Yaksa | |
Mrichakatika | Play | Shudraka
(2nd c. BCE)
| Set in Pataliputra
Hindi film Utsav was based on this
|
Karnabhara, Charudatta | Play | Bhasa
(1st BCE – 4thCE)
| Bhasa wrote about 13 plays
He is considered to be one of most important Sanskrit authors (after Kalidasa)
|
Urubhanga | Play | Bhasa | Based on Mahabharata
Depicts story of Duryodhana after fight with Bhima
|
Madhyamavyayoga | Play | Bhasa | Based on the Mahabharata |
Malavikagnimitram | Play | Kalidasa
(4th -5th CE)
Gupta period
| Tells the story of King Agnimitra falling in love with servant girl Malavika
Agnimitra was the son and successor to Pushyamitra Sunga
|
Abhijanasakuntalam | Play | Kalidasa | Tells story of king Dushyanta and his marriage to Shankuntala
Considered to be Kalidasa’s most popular play
|
Vikramaorvasiyam | Play | Kalidasa | Story of king Pururavas in love with celestial Urvashi |
Raghuvamsa | Poetry | Kalidasa | Kings of Raghu dynasty |
Kumarasambhava | Poetry | Kalidasa | Story of birth of Karthikeya |
Rtusamhara | Poetry | Kalidasa | Describes six seasons using context of love |
Meghaduta | Poetry | Kalidasa | Story of a Yaksha sending a message to his lover through a cloud
One of Kalidasa’s most popular poems
|
Ratnavali | Play | Harshavardhana
(590-647 CE)
| Story of king Udayana and princess Ratnavali
Contains one of the earliest references to festival Holi
|
Nagananda | Play | Harshavardhana | Describes prince Jimutavahana’s self-sacrifice to save serpents |
Priyadarsika | Play | Harshavardhana | |
Kiratarjuniya | Poetry | Bharavi | Describes contest b/w Arjuna and lord Shiva |
Shishupala Vadha | Poetry | Magha |
Important ancient literature in Tamil
Note that Sangam literature itself contains about 2400 poems by more than 470 poets. For obvious reasons, not all of them can be listed here
Work | Category | Author | Notes |
Ettuthokai | Poetry | Various
(600 BCE-
300 BCE)
| Part of Sangam literature
Ettuthokai contains 8 anthologies:
Ainkurunuru, Akananuru, Purananuru, Kalittokai, Kuruntokai, Narrinai, Paripatal, Patirrupattu
Each of these anthologies in turn contain hundreds of poems by multiple authors
Deals with two themes: Akam (personal life) and Puram (war, politics)
|
Pathupattu | Poetry | Various | Part of Sangam literature
Pathupattu contains 10 idylls (mid length books):
Tirumurugattruppatai, Kurinjipattu, Malaipatukatam, Maturaikkanji, Mullaipattu, Netunalvatai, Pattinappalai, Perumpanatrupatai, Porunaratruppatai, Sirupanatrupatai
Deals mainly with themes of nature
|
Tolkappiyam | Grammar | Tolkappiyar | Earliest available work of Tamil literature |
Aimperumkappiyam | Epics | Various | Collection of five large narrative epics
The five epics were: Silappadhigaram, Manimegalai, Sivaka Chintamani, Valayapathi and Kundalakesi
Specific epics described below
|
Silappadhigaram | Epic | Ilango Adigal
(1st c. CE)
| Describes story of Kannagi in her quest to save husband Kovalan
Describes in detail life, politics, trade, settlements of Greeks etc
Story evolves in themes of three: three kingdoms, three heroes, three heroines etc
Considered one of most important ancient Tamil literature
|
Manimegalai | Epic | Seethalai Sathanar
(1st-2nd c. CE)
| Story of Manimegalai, daughter of Kovalan
Sequel to Silappadhigaram
|
Sivaka Chintamani | Epic | Tirutakkatevar | Story of man who becomes king and then renounces throne |
Valayapathi | Epic | Unknown | Work lost |
Kundalakesi | Epic | Nagakuthanar | Original work lost, only fragments survive
Supposedly describes story of Buddhist monk Kundalakesi
|
Tirukkural | Ethics | Thiruvalluvar | Couplets of ethics
Contains 1330 couplets
Thirukkural remains the book translated into most number of languages in the world
|
SCIENCE IN ANCIENT INDIA
Work | Subject | Author | Notes |
Vedanga Jyotisha | Astrology | Lagadha
(1st c. BCE)
| Describes rules for tracking motion of sun and moon |
Yavanajataka | Astrology | Sphujidvaja
1st-2nd c. CE)
| Translated it mean “Nativity as per the Greeks”
It is a collection of astrology-related ideas borrowed from Greek world
Gives rules for building horoscopes
|
Surya Siddhanta | Astronomy | Establishes rules to determine motions of stellar objects | |
Paulisa Siddhanta
(Doctrine of Paul)
| Astronomy | Based on works of Paul of Alexandria
(c. 378 CE)
| |
Romaka Siddhanta
(Doctrine of the Romans)
| Astronomy | Based on works of Rome
It is the only Indian work based on the tropical system
| |
Vasishta Siddhanta | Astronomy | Attributed to sage Vasishta | |
Panchasiddhantika | Astronomy | Varahamihira
(c. 550 CE)
| Work that compares five treatises on astronomy viz. Surya Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Vasishta Siddhanta and Paitamaha Siddhanta |
Sulba sutras | Mathematics | Baudhayana (c. 800 BCE), Apasthamba (c. 600 BCE), Katyayana (c. 200 BCE) | Baudhayana enumerated the Pythagoras theorem. He also described square root of 2 and geometric shapes such as squares and rectangles
Apasthamba and Katyayana developed these principles further
|
Chandahsastra | Mathematics | Pingala
(4th-2nd c. BCE)
| First known description of binary numeral system in the world
Also describes Pascal’s triangle, binomial theorem and Fibonacci numbers
|
Aryabhatiya | Astronomy, mathematics | Aryabhata
(c 522 CE)
| Introduced decimal value notation
Describes heliocentric model of solar system
Explained lunar and solar eclipses
Gave duration of one year as 365 days 6 hrs 12 min 30 sec
Gave value of pi (3.1416)
Correctly calculated earth’s circumference as 24,835 miles
Aryabhata’s principles are still in use for fixing the Hindu calendar Panchanga
|
Mahabhaskariya | Mathematics, astronomy | Bhaskara I
(c. 600 – 680 CE)
| Representation of numbers in positional system
Solved Wilson’s theorem and Pell equation
|
Brahmasputasiddhanta | Mathematics, astronomy | Brahmagupta
(c. 630 CE)
| Describes solution of linear equation
Solve system of simultaneous indeterminate equations
Sum of series
Introduced the concept of zero
Formula for cyclic quadrilaterals
Rebutted the idea that moon is farther from earth than the sun
|
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